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empirical observation

  • 1 эмпирические данные

    1. empirical observation

     

    эмпирические данные
    —
    [Л.Г.Суменко. Англо-русский словарь по информационным технологиям. М.: ГП ЦНИИС, 2003.]

    Тематики

    EN

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > эмпирические данные

  • 2 эмпирическое наблюдение

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > эмпирическое наблюдение

  • 3 эмпирические данные

    1) General subject: obsevation
    3) Physics: empirical data
    4) Information technology: empirical observation
    6) Makarov: test data
    7) General subject: empiric evidence

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирические данные

  • 4 παρατήρησις

    A observation, διειλημμένοι εἰς παρατήρησιν kept under surveillance, Aen. Tact. 10.25 ;

    παρατηρήσεις ἄστρων D.

     S. 1.28, cf. 5.31 ;

    π. παθέων ἀλλοτρίων IG42(1).687.14

     (Epid., ii A. D.) ; ποιεῖσθαι τὴν π. Plu.2.36 3b ; μετὰ παρατηρήσεως so that it can be observed, Ev. Luc. 17.20: in bad sense, close observation, to detect faults, etc., Plb. 16.22.8 ; ἐνέδρα καὶ π. Plu. 2.266b ; empirical observation, opp. λογισμός, Gal.1.127 ; so κατὰ ἱστορίαν ἢ π. Phld.Rh. 1.40 S.
    2. observance of rules, etc., D.T.629.21.
    3. remark, note,

    παρατηρήσεως ἄξια Longin.23.2

    , cf. Sch.Ar.Ra. 1258 ; ψιλὴ π. bare notice, A.D.Pron.41.8.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > παρατήρησις

  • 5 эмпирические наблюдения

    General subject: empirical observation

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирические наблюдения

  • 6 эмпирическое наблюдение

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирическое наблюдение

  • 7 результаты наблюдений

    1) General subject: observation
    2) Mathematics: OD (observation data)
    3) Economy: observational data, observed data
    4) Metallurgy: observed results
    5) Ecology: observations
    8) Makarov: observational results

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > результаты наблюдений

  • 8 אמפיריות

    empiricism, empirical method, doctrine that all knowledge is based on observation and experience; application of observation and experiment; (Medicine) medicine that is based exclusively on experience

    Hebrew-English dictionary > אמפיריות

  • 9 опытное значение

    1) Metallurgy: empirical value
    2) Astronautics: measured value
    3) Automation: observation value

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > опытное значение

  • 10 подтверждение

    confirmation, corroboration, affirmation
    • Адекватные экспериментальные подтверждения теории отсутствуют. - Adequate empirical support for the theory is lacking.
    • Имеется множество подтверждений идеи, что... - There is a great deal of evidence for the idea that...
    • Однако сейчас имеется более ясное подтверждение, что... - There is now, however, clearer evidence that...
    • Первое важное подтверждение приходит из... - The first important piece of evidence comes from...
    • Подтверждение этой точки зрения (= такого понимания) вытекает из того, что... - Confirmation of this view is found in the fact that...
    • Подтверждение этому наблюдению было получено из... - Confirmation of this observation was obtained from...
    • Поразительное подтверждение этой интерпретации было получено Смитом [12]. — Striking evidence for this interpretation was obtained by Smith [12].
    • Существуют экспериментальные подтверждения для утверждения, что... - There are experimental reasons for concluding that...
    • Эксперимент принес эффектное подтверждение... - The experiment provided dramatic confirmation of...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > подтверждение

  • 11 ἱστορία

    ἱστορ-ία, [dialect] Ion. -ιη, ἡ,
    A inquiry,

    ἱστορίῃσι εἰδέναι τι παρά τινος Hdt.2.118

    , cf. 119;

    ἡ περὶ φύσεως ἱ. Pl.Phd. 96a

    ;

    αἱ περὶ τῶν ζῴων ἱ. Arist.Resp. 477a7

    ,al.;

    ἡ ἱ. ἡ περὶ τὰ ζῷα Id.PA 674b16

    ; ἡ ζωικὴ ἱ. ib. 668b30; περὶ φυτῶν ἱ., title of work by Theophrastus; systematic or scientific observation, Epicur.Ep.1p.29U.: abs., of science generally,

    ὄλβιος ὅστις τῆς ἱ. ἔσχε μάθησιν E.Fr. 910

     (anap.); of geometry, Pythag. ap. lamb.VP18.89: in empirical medicine, body of recorded cases, Gal.1.144; mythology,

    Ἡσίοδον πάσης ἤρανον ἱστορίης Hermesian.7.22

    .
    2 knowledge so obtained, information, Hdt.1 Praef., Hp.VM20;

    ὄψις ἐμὴ καὶ γνώμη καὶ ἱ. Hdt.2.99

    ; πρὸς ἱστορίαν τῶν κοινῶν for the knowledge of.., D.18.144;

    ἡ τῆς ψυχῆς ἱ. Arist.de An. 402a4

    .
    II written account of one's inquiries, narrative, history, prob. in this sense in Hdt.7.96;

    αἱ τῶν περὶ τὰς πράξεις γραφόντων ἱ. Arist.Rh. 1360a37

    , Po. 1451b3, Plb.1.57.5, al.;

    ἐκ τῶν ἱστοριῶν καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἄλλων μαρτυριῶν OGI13.12

     (iii B.C.);

    αἱ Μαιανδρίου ἱ. Inscr.Prien.37.105

    ; κοινὴ ἱ. general history, D.H.1.2; ἱ. Ἑλληνική, Ῥωμαϊκή, Plu.2.119d; restricted by some to contemporary history, Lat. rerum cognitio praesentium, Verr.Flacc. ap. Gell.5.18: generally, story, account, Call.Aet.3.1.7.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > ἱστορία

  • 12 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 13 Thinking

       But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)
       I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)
       Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)
       In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)
       Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)
       There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)
       But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)
       It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)
       The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)
       Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)
       What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)
       [E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Thinking

См. также в других словарях:

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